Mountain Pine and Wilderness

Mountain pine (Pinus mugo) is a unique element of the subalpine zone in European mountains. Its dense stands protect soil, retain snow, slow water runoff, and reduce avalanche risk. Moreover, they provide essential habitats for many mountain species. In the wilderness, mountain pine plays an irreplaceable role as a stabilizing and regenerative component of natural processes. 

Ecological Importance of Mountain Pine

Mountain pine protects slopes from erosion and avalanches, supports biodiversity, and helps maintain balance in high-altitude ecosystems. In wilderness areas with no human intervention, it plays a vital role in natural succession and the landscape’s resilience to climate extremes. It is living proof of nature’s ability to regenerate when given space. 

The Alps: The Longest History of Human Impact

In the Alps, the removal of mountain pine began around 1200 BCE, during the Late Bronze Age. During the Roman period (1st–4th century CE), grazing extended higher into the mountains, accelerating deforestation in subalpine zones. In the Middle Ages (especially 12th–15th centuries), pastoral expansion and burning further intensified this process.The peak of deforestation came in the 18th and 19th centuries, when mountain pine was systematically removed for pasture, fuel, and construction materials. In the 20th century, with the decline of mountain farming and the establishment of protected areas such as Hohe Tauern National Park in Austria (established in 1981), the natural return of mountain pine began. 

The Carpathians: Silent Retreat

In the Carpathians, mountain pine was less exploited in prehistoric times. However, targeted removal began around the 16th century. The most significant decline occurred in the 17th–19th centuries, as subalpine zones were widely used as summer pastures. Burning of shrubs became common, especially in the Tatras, Veľká Fatra, Ukrainian, and Romanian Carpathians.

In the 20th century, traditional grazing declined, but the regeneration of mountain pine was slow. Only the creation of non-intervention zones in national parks, such as Tatra National Park in Slovakia and Retezat National Park in Romania, allowed the spontaneous return of mountain pine. 

The Balkans: A Genetic Treasure Under Pressure

In the Balkans, human intervention started later, around the 14th–15th centuries, with the rise of grazing and the expansion of mountain settlements. Mountain pine was most affected in regions of long-term pasture use and burning, especially in the Rila, Pirin, Prokletije, and Šar Planina mountain ranges.During the 20th century, particularly after World War II, mountain farming declined. However, natural regeneration was hindered by political and military instability. Today, the concept of wilderness is helping restore natural habitats in protected areas such as Mavrovo National Park in North Macedonia (established in 1949) and Durmitor National Park in Montenegro (established in 1952). 

Conclusion

Human intervention in mountain pine habitats began 3,000 years ago in the Alps, became more intensive from the 16th century in the Carpathians, and from the 14th–15th centuries in the Balkans. While the causes—grazing, logging, and burning—were similar, the timing and intensity varied across regions.

Today, we have the opportunity to witness the spontaneous recovery of mountain wilderness in many areas. Thanks to non-intervention strategies, mountain pine is returning as an essential element of ecological stability. Protecting it means protecting the processes that have shaped Europe’s mountain landscapes for millennia.