Diverse Paths of Agricultural Development Across Continents

Why did agriculture emerge in some parts of the world and not in others? Research has shown that the decisive factors were not human abilities, but rather differences in geography, climate, and the availability of plant and animal species.

Some regions were endowed with favourable conditions, while others remained on the margins, even though the people there were just as inventive and hardworking.

Unequal Access to Domesticable Species

Not all regions were lucky enough to host wild plant and animal species suitable for domestication. Crops such as wheat, barley, or lentils were easily domesticated – they grew in areas of the Middle East and quickly spread into southeastern Europe.

For instance, eastern European regions including the Carpathians soon adopted these crops, laying the foundation for early agriculture. In contrast, certain islands in Oceania, such as New Guinea, or parts of southern Africa had local plants that were less nutritious and unsuitable for domestication, which limited the development of more complex societies.

The Importance of Large Mammals

Out of more than 140 large mammal species, only 14 were successfully domesticated – and most of them lived in what is now Eurasia. The most significant included cattle, horses, and sheep, which gradually spread from Asia to the Pyrenees. Thanks to them, European communities were able to develop plowing, animal husbandry, and later trade in wool and meat.

On the other hand, African zebras or South American lamas could not be domesticated or had limited uses, which slowed down economic and social progress in those regions.

The Role of Continental Axes

One important factor was the orientation of the continents. For example, Eurasia has an east–west axis, meaning that climate zones are similar across the continent.

Agricultural innovations – from sowing to storage – could spread from the Caucasus to the Atlantic without major climatic obstacles. In Europe, crops and technologies from Mesopotamia and Anatolia were able to take root quickly. In contrast, Africa and the Americas, with their north–south orientation, transition rapidly from tropical to temperate climates, making it more difficult for crops such as maize or beans to spread across the entire continent.

Invisible Limits of “Unsuccessful” Societies

Many societies didn’t make mistakes – they simply lacked the right conditions. Mountains, deserts, or islands cut communities off from each other, limiting the exchange of ideas and innovations.

In Europe, the Carpathians, Pyrenees, and Alps acted as partial barriers, but also offered refuges and diverse ecosystems that supported specialization and local innovations. Elsewhere, however, geographic isolation led to stagnation – for example in parts of North and South America.

Conclusion

It turns out that the development of agriculture in different regions was not the result of varying intelligence or determination, but of the natural environment. Favorable combinations of plants, animals, and geography enabled faster technological advancement, especially in Europe and western Asia. Elsewhere, people had to rely on slower, isolated, and often less nutritious resources – which did not make them less capable, just less well-equipped. In many cases, it was not until European conquerors arrived that domesticated species of plants and animals were introduced.